Demonstration of Motherboard

• One of the most crucial components of a computer system is the motherboard. It holds together a lot of the essential parts of a computer, such as the memory, connectors for input and output devices, and the central processor unit (CPU). 
• A very stiff layer of non-conductive material, usually rigid plastic, serves as the motherboard's basis. 
• Traces—thin layers of copper or aluminium foil—are imprinted on this sheet. These traces, which connect the various components, are incredibly narrow. 
• A motherboard also includes a number of sockets and slots for connecting other components.

Motherboard components

1. You would probably become very perplexed by all the various components if you tried to open up your computer and remove the motherboard. 
2. It can resemble this depending on the brand and type of your computer.
3. However, it is useful to understand some of the more crucial components and how the motherboard links the many components of a computer system. Typical components include the following:

• CPU socket
• Memory slots
• SATA connector (Storage)
• Power connector
• Chipset
• Floppy connector
• IO Chip
• Rear fan connector
• Chassis fan connector
• IO connectors
• USB ports
• Audio connector
• IDE connector
• CMOS battery header
• PCI peripheral component interconnect slots
• Nonvolatile memory (ROM) to hold the Boot program
• Clock generator to synchronize with components
• Expansion card slot

1. A CPU socket - the actual CPU is directly soldered onto the socket. Since high speed CPUs generate a lot of heat, there are heat sinks and mounting points for fans right next to the CPU socket.
2. A power connector to distribute power to the CPU and other components.
3. Slots for the system's main memory, typically in the form of DRAM chips.
4. A chip forms an interface between the CPU, the main memory and other components. On many types of motherboards, this is referred to as the Northbridge. This chip also contains a large heat sink.
5. A second chip controls the input and output (I/O) functions. It is not connected directly to the CPU but to the Northbridge. This I/O controller is referred to as the Southbridge. The Northbridge and Southbridge combined are referred to as the chipset.
6. Several connectors, which provide the physical interface between input and output devices and the motherboard. The Southbridge handles these connections.
7. Slots for one or more hard drives to store files. The most common types of connections are Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) and Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA).
8. A read-only memory (ROM) chip, which contains the firmware, or startup instructions for the computer system. This is also called the BIOS.
9. A slot for a video or graphics card. There are a number of different types of slots, including the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) and Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe).
10. Additional slots to connect hardware in the form of Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots.
11. There are certainly a lot of acronyms to get used to! Don't worry too much about trying to remember all the parts and their acronyms. The key is to remember that the motherboard contains the central processing unit, the memory, and all the connectors to the rest of the hardware of the computer system. The board is the 'mother' of all components - that's where it gets its name.

There are some basic types of Motherboard

AT Motherboard

• These motherboards are not appropriate for the mini desktop category of PCs since they have larger physical dimensions that range in the hundreds of millimeters. An additional barrier to installing new drivers is larger physical size. 
• In these motherboards, the power connectors come in the form of sockets and six-pin plugs. Users have trouble connecting to and using these power connectors since they are difficult to identify.
• In the 1980s, this style of motherboard was popular and had a long shelf life.

ATX Motherboard

• ATX indicates It was an upgraded version of a previous AT motherboard that was created by Intel in the 1990s using advanced technologies. 
• When compared to AT, it is smaller in size and offers interchangeability for the connected components.

LPX Motherboard

• There were two upgrades from the previous boards. The first is the relocation of the input and output ports to the back, and the second is the addition of the Riser card to allow for more slots and simpler connection. 
• The AT motherboard used a few of these features. The biggest drawback of this board is the direct connection to PCI caused by the absence of Accelerated Graphic Port (AGP) slots. In NLX boards, problems with these motherboards were fixed.

BTX Motherboard

• Balanced Technology Extended (BTX) is designed to manage the demands of emerging technologies in terms of higher power requirements and consequently higher heat generation. 
• Midway through the 2000s, Intel ceased future BTX board development to concentrate on low power CPU.

Pico BTX motherboard

• The word "Pico" refers to the tiny size of these boards. The upper half of BTX is shared by two expansion slots, however they are still supported. 
• It satisfies the requirements of digital applications and has distinctive features such as half-height or riser cards.

Mini ITX motherboard

• Compared to prior generations, it is a smaller version of the motherboard. Its size is 17 by 17 cm, and it was created in the early 2000s. mostly utilized in small form factor (SFF) computers because of its quicker cooling capacity and lower power consumption. 
• Due to its reduced level of fan noise, which will raise the caliber of the theater system, this motherboard is the most popular in the home theater industry.

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Online Attendance System Evening Session

   Online Attendance System Evening Session (2021-2022) Computer Science & Engg. Final Year.

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Online Attendance System Morning Session

  Online Attendance System Morning Session (2021-2022) Computer Science & Engg. Final Year.

"Cloud Computing & IMED"

Online Attendance System

Fill the given google form for attendance in the morning session.

• Online Attendance System is made for collecting attendance for all the students as per their subjects.
• So please provide your attendance two times a day (Morning and Evening sessions).
• Both attendances are compulsory.
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Online Attendance System Session 2021-2022

Online Attendance System (2021-2022)

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Click on the given link for attendance for morning and evening sessions.

• Online Attendance System is made for collecting attendance for all the students as per their subjects.
• So please provide your attendance two times a day (Morning and Evening sessions).
• Both attendances are compulsory.
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"Things" in IoT

What is the meaning of "THINGS" in IoT?

• In the Internet of Things, "things" refers to any sensor or attribute capable of reading or detecting data from various physical quantities that can be quantified using these sensors.
• An entity or physical object with a unique identification, an embedded system, and the ability to transfer data across a network is referred to as a thing in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT).
• The term "things" is commonly used in the IoT to refer to embedded devices that can connect with the internet. 
• These embedded devices should be able to collect data from their surroundings, process it, and interact with the internet in order to operate the appropriate appliances based on the specifications.

What are the things which are commonly connected in IoT?

Things in IoT

• The first Internet-connected thing was a toaster at a 1990 tradeshow. 
• Today's objects are already light years ahead. Security systems, lights, and thermostats are now popular candidates for internet connectivity. 
• However, practically anything may be turned into a connected gadget.
• Connecting a thermostat or lighting enables for energy savings through remote access or improved scheduling, which is becoming increasingly popular.
• Vending machines, for example, are becoming smarter, collecting feedback and transforming it into a better consumer experience.

Data types, variables and Operators in Arduino.

Data types in Arduino.

• Data types are the types of data which are used to create an arduino program.
• Data types also define how much apace a variable will occupy in computer memory.
• The following table provides all the data types which are used during Arduino programming.

Data Types in Arduino

void	Boolean	char
Unsigned char	byte	int
Unsigned int	word	long
Unsigned long	short	float
double	array	String-char array
String-object

• Void- It indicates that the function is expected to return no information to the function from which it was called.
• boolean (8 bit) - simple logical true/false.
• char (8 bit) - signed number from -128 to 127. 
• unsigned char (8 bit) - same as 'byte'; if this is what you're after, you should use 'byte' instead, for reasons of clarity.
• byte (8 bit) - unsigned number from 0-255
• int (16 bit) - signed number from -32768 to 32767.
• unsigned int (16 bit)- the same as 'word'. Use 'word' instead for clarity and brevity IDE.
• word (16 bit) - unsigned number from 0-65535.
• long (32 bit) - signed number from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.
• unsigned long (32 bit) - unsigned number from 0-4,294,967,295. The most common usage of this is to store the result of the millis() function, which returns the number of milliseconds the current code has been running
• short- A short is a 16-bit data-type. On all Arduinos (ATMega and ARM based), a short stores a 16-bit (2-byte) value. This yields a range of -32,768 to 32,767 (minimum value of -2^15 and a maximum value of (2^15) - 1).
• float (32 bit) - Data type for floating-point number is a number that has a decimal point. Floating-point numbers can be as large as 3.4028235E+38 and as low as -3.4028235E+38. They are stored as 32 bits (4 bytes) of information.
• double- On the Uno and other ATMEGA based boards, Double precision floating-point number occupies four bytes. That is, the double implementation is exactly the same as the float, with no gain in precision. On the Arduino Due, doubles have 8-byte (64 bit) precision.
  

Variables and their Scope

• The scope of variables in the C programming language, which Arduino uses, is a property. A scope is a section of the programme where variables can be defined in one of three places.

1. Inside a function or a block, which is called local variables.
2. Outside of all functions, which is called global variables.
3. In the definition of function parameters, which is called formal parameters.

Local variables:

• Local variables are variables that are defined within a function or block. 
• They can only be utilized by statements that are included within that function or code block. 
• Local variables aren't known to have any effect outside of their own scope. 
• The following is an example of how to use local variables.

For Example: 

Void setup () {

}

Void loop () {

   int x , y ;

   int z ; Local variable declaration

   x = 0;

   y = 0; actual initialization

   z = 10;

}

Global variables:

• Global variables are defined at the beginning of the programme, outside of any functions. 
• The value of the global variables will remain constant over the life of your programme.
• Any function has access to a global variable. That is, once a global variable is declared, it is available for use throughout your entire programme. 

For Examples:

Int T , S ;

float c = 0 ; Global variable declaration

Void setup () {

}

Void loop () {

   int x , y ;

   int z ; Local variable declaration

   x = 0;

   y = 0; actual initialization

   z = 10;

}

Operators in Arduino:

• A symbol that directs the compiler to execute certain mathematical or logical tasks is known as an operator. 
• The C language has a large number of built-in operators, including the following:

1. Arithmetic Operators.
2. Comparison Operators.
3. Boolean Operators.
4. Bitwise Operators.
5. Compound Operators.

Operators in Arduino

1. Arithmetic Operators

• Assume variable A holds 20 and variable B holds 40 then −

Operator name	Operator simple	Description	Example
Assignment operator	=	Stores the value to the right of the equal sign in the variable to the left of the equal sign.	A = B
Addition	+	Adds two operands	A + B will give 60
Subtraction	-	Subtracts second operand from the first	A - B will give -20
Multiplication	*	Multiply both operands	A * B will give 800
Division	/	Divide numerator by denominator	B / A will give 2
Modulo	%	Modulus Operator and remainder of after an integer division	B % A will give 0

Example:

void loop () {

   int a = 9,b = 4,c;

   c = a + b;

   c = a - b;

   c = a * b;

   c = a / b;

   c = a % b;

}

Expected Output:

a + b = 13

a - b = 5

a * b = 36

a / b = 2

Remainder when a divided by b = 1

2. Comparison Operators:

• Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −

Operator name	Operator simple	Description	Example
Equal to	= =	Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true.	(A == B) is not true
Not equal to	! =	Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if values are not equal then condition becomes true.	(A != B) is true
Less than	<	Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.	(A < B) is true
Greater than	>	Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.	(A > B) is not true
Less than or equal to	< =	Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.	(A <= B) is true
Greater than or equal to	> =	Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.	(A >= B) is not true

Example:

void loop () { 

   int a = 9,b = 4

   bool c = false;

   if(a == b)

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   if(a != b)

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   

   if(a < b)

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   

   if(a > b)

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   

   if(a <= b)

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   

   if(a >= b)

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

}

Expected Output:

c = false

c = true

c = false

c = true

c = false

c = false

3. Boolean Operators:

• Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −

Operator name	Operator simple	Description	Example
and	&&	Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are non-zero then then condition becomes true.	(A && B) is true
or	||	Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands is non-zero then then condition becomes true.	(A || B) is true
not	!	Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the logical state of its operand. If a condition is true then Logical NOT operator will make false.	!(A && B) is false

 Example:

void loop () {

   int a = 9,b = 4

   bool c = false;

   if((a > b)&& (b < a))

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   if((a == b)|| (b < a))

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

   if( !(a == b)&& (b < a))

      c = true;

   else

      c = false;

}

Expected Output:

c = true

c = true

c = true

4. Bitwise Operators:

• Assume variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13 then −

Operator name	Operator simple	Description	Example
and	&	Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both operands.	(A & B) will give 12 which is 0000 1100
or	|	Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either operand	(A | B) will give 61 which is 0011 1101
xor	^	Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not both.	(A ^ B) will give 49 which is 0011 0001
not	~	Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits.	(~A ) will give -60 which is 1100 0011
shift left	<<	Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved left by the number of bits specified by the right operand.	A << 2 will give 240 which is 1111 0000
shift right	>>	Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved right by the number of bits specified by the right operand.	A >> 2 will give 15 which is 0000 1111

Example:

void loop () {

   int a = 10,b = 20

   int c = 0;

   c = a & b ;

   c = a | b ;

   c = a ^ b ;

   c = a ~ b ;

   c = a << b ;

   c = a >> b ; 

}

Expected Output: 

c = 12

c = 61

c = 49

c = -60

c = 240

c = 15

5. Compound Operators:

• Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then − 

Operator name	Operator simple	Description	Example
increment	++	Increment operator, increases integer value by one	A++ will give 11
decrement	--	Decrement operator, decreases integer value by one	A-- will give 9
compound addition	+=	Add AND assignment operator. It adds right operand to the left operand and assign the result to left operand	B += A is equivalent to B = B+ A
compound subtraction	-=	Subtract AND assignment operator. It subtracts right operand from the left operand and assign the result to left operand	B -= A is equivalent to B = B - A
compound multiplication	*=	Multiply AND assignment operator. It multiplies right operand with the left operand and assign the result to left operand	B*= A is equivalent to B = B* A
compound division	/=	Divide AND assignment operator. It divides left operand with the right operand and assign the result to left operand	B /= A is equivalent to B = B / A
compound modulo	%=	Modulus AND assignment operator. It takes modulus using two operands and assign the result to left operand	B %= A is equivalent to B = B % A
compound bitwise or	|=	bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator	A |= 2 is same as A = A | 2
compound bitwise and	&=	Bitwise AND assignment operator	A &= 2 is same as A = A & 2

Example: 

void loop () {

   int a = 10,b = 20

   int c = 0;

   

   a++;

   a--;

   b += a;

   b -= a;

   b *= a;

   b /= a;

   a %= b;

   a |= b;

   a &= b;

}

Expected Output:

a = 11

a = 9

b = 30

b = 10

b = 200

b = 2

a = 0

a = 0

a = 30